Political and Economic Change
- Russia’s history has a pattern of chaos and revolution at turning points in its history and government, as opposed to gradualism (used in Britain).
- Russia’s history is characterized by three time periods: a long period of autocratic Tsar rulers, a 20th century rule by its communist party and an abrupt change to democracy and free market principles in 1991.
- The two transitional periods were caused by revolutions, fast and drastic changes. One feature of long periods of authoritarian rule was violent protest.
- During occasions where reforms were implemented that involved democracy and individual rights, those reforms usually ended up failing.
Below is more detail regarding Russia's history that will be tested in the AP. Please try to connect policies made in the past to modern day policies.
Tsarist Rule
The first Tsars were princes of Moscow who were rewarded with land and power for their cooperation with their 13th century Mongol rulers.
From the beginning the Tsars were politically powerful and very controlling of their lands. They were also leaders in almost all aspects of both worldly and spiritual affairs (the head of the Russian Orthodox Church was always the Tsar in control).
During the 17th and 18th centuries, Tsar Peter the Great introduced Western technology, science, engineering, culture, architecture and carpentry to Russia in an attempt to increase the power and influence of Russia.
Catherine the Great ruled Russia after Peter the Great and managed to gain access to the Black Sea for trade.
Tsars after Peter and Catherine continued applying policies of either Westernization or ones emphasizing Slavic roots, though to varying degrees depending on the ruler.
Russia was brought into contact with the West when Napoleon invaded in 1812. It was Western thoughts and ideas that stirred the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, when Intellectuals realized there was little chance for Western political ideas to be implemented in Russia. The Revolt was crushed by Nicholas I.
Later, the Russian defeat in the Crimean War also convinced critics that Russian policies and procedures were in need of reform. The Tsars responded by having the dissenters exiled or executed. See the pattern of revolt and harsh countermeasures?
The only Tsar who seriously encouraged reform was Alexander II. But despite his actions, the people still did not think his reform policies were enough, and he was assassinated in 1881. Alexander’s son, Alexander III responded by undoing his father’s reforms and further backing the secret police.
In 1917, the reign of the Tsars would end after the Revolution of 1917. The greatest cause for it was the poor performance of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war and WWI. The first signs of the revolution were in 1905 when riots broke out over losses in the war. The state eventually collapsed in 1917.
From the beginning the Tsars were politically powerful and very controlling of their lands. They were also leaders in almost all aspects of both worldly and spiritual affairs (the head of the Russian Orthodox Church was always the Tsar in control).
During the 17th and 18th centuries, Tsar Peter the Great introduced Western technology, science, engineering, culture, architecture and carpentry to Russia in an attempt to increase the power and influence of Russia.
Catherine the Great ruled Russia after Peter the Great and managed to gain access to the Black Sea for trade.
Tsars after Peter and Catherine continued applying policies of either Westernization or ones emphasizing Slavic roots, though to varying degrees depending on the ruler.
Russia was brought into contact with the West when Napoleon invaded in 1812. It was Western thoughts and ideas that stirred the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, when Intellectuals realized there was little chance for Western political ideas to be implemented in Russia. The Revolt was crushed by Nicholas I.
Later, the Russian defeat in the Crimean War also convinced critics that Russian policies and procedures were in need of reform. The Tsars responded by having the dissenters exiled or executed. See the pattern of revolt and harsh countermeasures?
The only Tsar who seriously encouraged reform was Alexander II. But despite his actions, the people still did not think his reform policies were enough, and he was assassinated in 1881. Alexander’s son, Alexander III responded by undoing his father’s reforms and further backing the secret police.
In 1917, the reign of the Tsars would end after the Revolution of 1917. The greatest cause for it was the poor performance of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war and WWI. The first signs of the revolution were in 1905 when riots broke out over losses in the war. The state eventually collapsed in 1917.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
During the 1890’s, some of the revolutionaries in Russia were exiled Marxists. In his 1905 pamphlet, V.I. Lenin changed the application of Marxism by adding democratic centralism, the vanguard to lead the revolution for the people (the less glorified idea is that it would give certain individuals more authority to help facilitate the revolution as they would see fit).
Lenin’s followers came to be known as the Bolsheviks and they took over the government in 1917, renaming Russia as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
In 1918 another war broke out, between Lenin (the Red Army) and Russian military leaders (the White Army). The Red Army won. So to be clear: the Revolution of 1917 was generally Lenin vs the Tsar. The war in 1918 was basically Lenin vs the military.
In 1920 Lenin began his New Economic Policy, allowing private ownership to exist under centralized leadership (capitalism monitored by the state). While it helped farmers, it did not promote industrialization in Russia.
Lenin died in 1924 and was succeeded by Stalin.
Lenin’s followers came to be known as the Bolsheviks and they took over the government in 1917, renaming Russia as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
In 1918 another war broke out, between Lenin (the Red Army) and Russian military leaders (the White Army). The Red Army won. So to be clear: the Revolution of 1917 was generally Lenin vs the Tsar. The war in 1918 was basically Lenin vs the military.
In 1920 Lenin began his New Economic Policy, allowing private ownership to exist under centralized leadership (capitalism monitored by the state). While it helped farmers, it did not promote industrialization in Russia.
Lenin died in 1924 and was succeeded by Stalin.
Stalinism
Stalin altered Lenin’s idea of democratic centralism (also called Marxism-Leninism), implemented his policy of Stalinism and gave the Communist Party complete power over the government with measures in place to prevent other parties from ever posing a threat to the status-quo. To prevent anyone from changing the Communist Party from within, party members were carefully selected. (Eventually they were trusted to run local, regional and national governments).
Regarding the structure of the Communist Party of the USSR: Most top government officials belonged to the Central Committee (roughly 300 people). Above them were members of the Politburo (about 12 people) and above them was the secretary-general, the leader of the Politburo and the entire state.
Stalinism is characterized by collectivization and industrialization, carried out by central planning and executed with force.
Stalin replaced the NEP (New Economic Policy) with collective farms to provide food for the cities (COLLECTIVIZATION) and the cities, in turn, were meant to provide industrial goods for trade (INDUSTRIALIZATION).
Stalin’s Five Year Plans and other goals were carried out by factories monitored by the Gosplan, the Central State Planning Commission (CENTRAL PLANNING).
Those that resisted Stalin's policies (Kulaks) were sent to labor camps where they died, almost died or were worked to exhaustion at the hands of government officials (POLICIES EXECUTED BY FORCE).
In the 1930s, Stalin’s main focus was internal development, and his foreign policy reflected that goal and ultimately helped him in those endeavors.
Stalin is best known for his purges in which millions were executed, including party members. Stalin’s successor, Khrushchev, denounced the totalitarian policies and purges of Stalin.
Regarding the structure of the Communist Party of the USSR: Most top government officials belonged to the Central Committee (roughly 300 people). Above them were members of the Politburo (about 12 people) and above them was the secretary-general, the leader of the Politburo and the entire state.
Stalinism is characterized by collectivization and industrialization, carried out by central planning and executed with force.
Stalin replaced the NEP (New Economic Policy) with collective farms to provide food for the cities (COLLECTIVIZATION) and the cities, in turn, were meant to provide industrial goods for trade (INDUSTRIALIZATION).
Stalin’s Five Year Plans and other goals were carried out by factories monitored by the Gosplan, the Central State Planning Commission (CENTRAL PLANNING).
Those that resisted Stalin's policies (Kulaks) were sent to labor camps where they died, almost died or were worked to exhaustion at the hands of government officials (POLICIES EXECUTED BY FORCE).
In the 1930s, Stalin’s main focus was internal development, and his foreign policy reflected that goal and ultimately helped him in those endeavors.
Stalin is best known for his purges in which millions were executed, including party members. Stalin’s successor, Khrushchev, denounced the totalitarian policies and purges of Stalin.
Chart of organization in the Communist Party
"Most top government officials belonged to the Central Committee (roughly 300 people), select even among them were members of the Politburo (about 12 people) and the leader of the Politburo and the entire state was the general secretary."
"Most top government officials belonged to the Central Committee (roughly 300 people), select even among them were members of the Politburo (about 12 people) and the leader of the Politburo and the entire state was the general secretary."
Reform Under Khrushchev and Gorbachev
When Stalin died in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev emerged from the power struggle as leader of the USSR.
In 1956 Khrushchev gave a secret speech in which he revealed a letter from Lenin that criticized Stalin. This led the people to lose faith in Stalin, which made them lose faith in his policies which led to de-Stalinization.
Unfortunately, Khrushchev was also criticized for his reforms and his leadership, especially after the Cuban Missile Crisis. He was replaced by the more conservative Leonid Brezhnev who ended Khrushchev’s reforms.
When Brezhnev died in 1982, he was replaced in 1985 by Mikhail Gorbachev, a Soviet leader more open to Western style reforms than any of his predecessors. Gorbachev's program had three parts: Glasnost, democratization and Perestroika. But due to the Revolution of 1991, Gorbachev’s reforms remained incomplete.
In 1956 Khrushchev gave a secret speech in which he revealed a letter from Lenin that criticized Stalin. This led the people to lose faith in Stalin, which made them lose faith in his policies which led to de-Stalinization.
Unfortunately, Khrushchev was also criticized for his reforms and his leadership, especially after the Cuban Missile Crisis. He was replaced by the more conservative Leonid Brezhnev who ended Khrushchev’s reforms.
When Brezhnev died in 1982, he was replaced in 1985 by Mikhail Gorbachev, a Soviet leader more open to Western style reforms than any of his predecessors. Gorbachev's program had three parts: Glasnost, democratization and Perestroika. But due to the Revolution of 1991, Gorbachev’s reforms remained incomplete.
Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991
In 1991, Conservatives from the politburo who wanted to stop Gorbachev’s Western-style reforms led a coup d’état in an attempt to remove him from office. The coup failed.
BUT! shortly after the Revolution of 1991, eleven republics declared independence which led Gorbachev to declare the USSR disbanded in the same year as the revolution: 1991.
Boris Yeltsin led the protesters who were against the revolution, which helped cement his position as leader of the Russian government after Gorbachev.
The fifteen republics separated, but Yeltsin managed to gain control of the most powerful single Republic, now known as the Russian Federation.
BUT! shortly after the Revolution of 1991, eleven republics declared independence which led Gorbachev to declare the USSR disbanded in the same year as the revolution: 1991.
Boris Yeltsin led the protesters who were against the revolution, which helped cement his position as leader of the Russian government after Gorbachev.
The fifteen republics separated, but Yeltsin managed to gain control of the most powerful single Republic, now known as the Russian Federation.
Russian Federation: 1991-present
When the Revolution of 1991 was over, the old USSR structure of government was destroyed, but the problems that haunted the old regime remained.
The Constitution of 1993 created a three branch government with a president and a prime minister, a lower legislative house (called the Duma), and a Constitutional Court.
Conflict between Yeltsin and the Duma increased as the Russian economy remained unresponsive to the shock therapy caused by the sudden shift to a market economy.
The election of 2000 made Prime Minister Vladimir Putin president, and though he supported Yeltsin’s reforms, Putin was perceived as more conservative.
Many now see Putin as the one who devalued Yeltsin’s attempts at democratizing Russia’s political system.
The Constitution of 1993 created a three branch government with a president and a prime minister, a lower legislative house (called the Duma), and a Constitutional Court.
Conflict between Yeltsin and the Duma increased as the Russian economy remained unresponsive to the shock therapy caused by the sudden shift to a market economy.
The election of 2000 made Prime Minister Vladimir Putin president, and though he supported Yeltsin’s reforms, Putin was perceived as more conservative.
Many now see Putin as the one who devalued Yeltsin’s attempts at democratizing Russia’s political system.
State Hermitage in St. Petersburg - Founded by Catherine the Great in the 18th Century